Arguments against abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Contentions against fetus removal - Essay Example The discussion lies on when and whether fetus removal ought to be done and the degree to which it ought to be denied or energized. It is this discussion that has made different nations sanction premature birth, for example, the US, while others, for example, Brazil, despite everything consider the method unlawful (Naden, 2008). This paper contends against fetus removal, in light of its contention with strict and moral norms, and therefore bolsters its illegalization. Initially, premature birth includes removing human life, thus commensurate to kill. With this contention, it is basic to comprehend when life starts. Defenders of fetus removal contend that an incipient organism is definitely not a person. They contend that it is just until such an incipient organism gains human attributes that it will be perceived as a human (Thomson, 2010). Nonetheless, these defenders don't draw a reasonable line from which an undeveloped organism gets human. In this way, it would be increasingly sens ible to think about an incipient organism as a full human or an individual (Beckwith 1992). As per England (1996), the incipient organism begins growing promptly an oocyte is treated by a sperm, a procedure that outcomes in the arrangement of a zygote. A zygote is a huge diploid cell and is the start of human life. It implies that life starts at origination and accordingly the humanness of an undeveloped organism following preparation. This genius life contention has been in presence throughout the entire existence of the world for quite a while. For example, Naden (2008) sees that the Bible alludes to the unborn as a kid. It along these lines perceives the way that an incipient organism as of now qualifies as an individual. Consequently, life starts at origination. This implies at whatever phase of pregnancy, from the principal day to the most recent day of the ninth month, whatever is borne in the belly is a person. In that capacity, prematurely ending pregnancy at any stage adds up to murder, and along these lines corrupt. Furthermore, having seen that premature birth is equivalent to kill, it is contrary to strict standards to settle on the passing of an individual, for this situation the undeveloped organism, as just God saves the sole capacity to choose when one should kick the bucket. In essential terms, premature birth is slaughtering. Nobody holds the option to choose the passing or even existence of an honest individual. Be that as it may, Thomson (2010) sees that in circumstances where the life of the lady is in danger of death, state because of a heart condition that could forestall conveying the pregnancy to term, at that point she has the privilege to prematurely end. Both the mother and the baby reserve the option to life. Doing a premature birth adds up to murdering the embryo while never helping to not mean executing the mother, yet rather allowing her to pass on. Besides, slaughtering the hatchling would be executing a guiltless life that doe sn't target murdering the mother. Picking between allowing one to bite the dust and executing an honest individual, the previous holds moral desires. In any case, if the mother decides on a fetus removal, it would not be considered as improper, but instead a demonstration to spare her life. The mother’s right of choosing what happens to and in her body exceeds the privilege of the hatchling to life. At last, there are a heap of physiological and mental dangers related with premature birth making it impermissible. Premature birth stays a tricky territory of study for a dominant part of specialists. Significantly after the technique was authorized in the US, a Columbia University Medical Center educator of obstetrics and gynecology, Dr. Carolyn Westhoff, sees that the circumstance has not changed altogether with enormous showing clinics and clinical schools not regarding premature birth as a significant preparing territory (Naden, 2008). This implies the territory needs suffici ent qualified work force to deal with the strategy. This leaves the undertaking to doctors at unsupported centers, uncovering the ladies

ASU Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ASU - Essay Example I have consistently been lethargic about going to these sorts of occasion however it ended up being beneficial for me. I generally felt that it was exhausting and futile, be that as it may, in fact it was a good time for me. Back home we don't have these sorts of occasions where all the understudies in a school head off to some place or accomplish something together. All things considered, at ASU everything is unique and new to me so I enjoyed the experience, however one of my companions didn't care for it by any stretch of the imagination. Before the finish of the occasion while we were returning down he got a cerebral pain, and I accused myself as being answerable for this, since I had brought him close by me. Toward the starting he didn’t need to come yet I put in no time flat persuading him until he consented to accompany me and my other companion. All things considered, that was an extraordinary day for me, I preferred it, and I would like to do it again. It was the first run through for me to go to a football coordinate since we don't have that back home. I was extremely apprehensive on observing the enormous number of fans who had turned up for the football coordinate. It was only my companion and I that had gone to the game and it was packed, so there was a great deal of commotion originating from everywhere throughout the arena. I loved what was happening from the outset however then it sort of bothered me, so I was wanting to leave the match, only 15 minutes after it had started. This was my absolute first involvement with an arena that huge and what actually a football coordinated resembled in actuality. The experience was altogether different from what I had seen before on TV. While I was watching the match, I got exhausted since I don't have the foggiest idea about the guidelines of the game or how the game should be played, so I didn't discover it that fascinating to me. I have for the longest time been itching to go to a football coordinate, however I attended, I am anxious about the possibility that that could be the first and last time for me to go to such a match once more. This is for the sole explanation that I am not the sort of an individual who enjoys huge hordes of individuals notwithstanding an excessive amount of clamor

Learning Style Inventory Types and Their Uses

Learning Style Inventory Types and Their Uses Theories Cognitive Psychology Print Learning Style Inventory Types and Their Uses By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on February 01, 2020 PeopleImages.com / Getty Images More in Theories Cognitive Psychology Behavioral Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology Learning style inventories are designed to help respondents determine which learning style they have. These inventories typically take the form of a questionnaire that focuses on how people prefer to learn. Respondents choose the answers that most closely resemble their own preferences. How a Learning Style Inventory Is Used Learning style inventories are based on the idea that people have different strengths and preferences when it comes to learning. Many theories exist suggesting that people can be classified based on their predominant learning style. Most of these ideas propose that all people learn differently and that designing instruction based on these learning styles can enhance the educational process.? This notion that people possess different learning styles first became a popular concept during the 1970s. Since then, learning style theories have had a tremendous impact on the field of education. Teachers often utilize learning style inventories at the outset of a class to discover more about students and to help students better understand how they learn. Learning style inventories remain a popular classroom tool despite the fact that research has found little evidence that matching a students learning preferences to instructional methods produces better educational outcomes. A number of studies have found that students taught according to their identified learning style do no better than students who are not matched to their style.?? However, research has supported the idea that people have definite preferences for how they learn new information.?? At best, learning style inventories might be a way for students to develop study habits that keep them interested and engaged in the learning process. Students may find it useful to discover their preferences and then use this information to hone their study routines. Visual learners, for example, might benefit from creating symbols, graphs, and other visual information while studying the material in question. Popular Learning Style Inventories These are popular types of learning style inventories: Kolbs Learning Style Inventory (LSI) Perhaps one of the best-known and most widely used questionnaires is the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) based on Kolbs learning styles. The computerized assessment allows students to discover their learning style and also provides information on how educators can use this information to best serve students as well as possible strategies for accommodating different learning styles. Flemings VARK Learning Style Questionnaire In Flemings VARK learning style model, learners are identified as one of four different types: visual, auditory, reading/writing and kinesthetic. In 1987, he developed a questionnaire based on his model that was designed to help people learn more about their individual style. The model and questionnaire quickly became very popular among students and educators, and both remain widely used today. Jacksons Learning Styles Profiler (LSP) The Learning Style Profiler (LSP) is based on Chris J. Jacksons hybrid model of learning in personality. Jacksons model suggests that learning styles are influenced by a variety of factors including experience, personal choice, and biology. The profiler is designed to assess how people learn at work, so it is often used in organizational and business settings. Online Learning Style Quizzes There are also many free online quizzes available online. While these informal questionnaires are a fun way to gain a little more insight into how you like to learn, it is important to realize that most have never been studied or validated in any way. Taking such online quizzes can be a fun way to discover some of your own learning preferences, try not to put to much stock into your results.

Negative Consequences of Learning the Truth, in...

Whoever said the truth will set you free must not have read the works of Nathaniel Hawthorn and Kate Chopin. It is in Hawthorn’s story â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† and Chopin’s â€Å"Desiree’s Baby† that learning the truth is not liberating but leads to isolation and bitterness because the truth is too much to comprehend. In â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† Brown’s experience of the satanic group in the woods causes him to discover part of his community’s identity with evil and this causes his withdrawal of himself from the community because of his lack of trust. â€Å"Desiree’s Baby† problem deals with Armand’s unwillingness to accept the fact that his mother was African American, which leads him to resentful acts and his inability to accept responsibility for his†¦show more content†¦It is this connection that Brown feels is being attacked and questioned. The use of the words â€Å"loathful brotherhoodâ €  shows Brown’s connection to these people, and his resentment towards them because he feels as though his trust in others has been shattered. Hawthorn’s naming of Brown’s wife â€Å"Faith† has a duel mean. Brown’s â€Å"Faith† represents his spiritual faith along with his loving wife who he characterizes as being â€Å"a blessed angel on earth,† (526). When Brown exclaims â€Å"My Faith is gone!† (531) not only is Brown referring to the fact that he believes he may have lost his dear wife, but he loses his spiritual faith and the faith in others as more is unfolded on his journey to the communion. When he encounters his wife the next day, unsure as to whether or not the previous nights events occurred he â€Å"looked sternly and sadly into her face, and passed on without a greeting,† (534). This experience Brown had transforms him from being a man strong to â€Å"a stern, a sad, a darkly meditative, a distrustful, if not a desperate man,† (535). Chopin show’s that Armand is unable to welcome the knowledge that his mother â€Å"belongs to the race that is cursed with the brand of slavery,† (250). Not only is Armand unable to accept this fact but he is not will to take responsibility for his actions resulting in his knowledge of his heritage. Desiree seemed to be the perfect solution for Armand’s secret since her background is a mystery and she has such

Reasons For Pursuing A Career - 1467 Words

As I sat at my computer, summoning the courage to apply to dental school, I found myself asking, â€Å"What was it? Which moment in time?† Truthfully, there wasn’t one experience or moment. My list of reasons for pursuing a career in dentistry is extensive. A career in the dental field offers many benefits. These benefits include job security, comfortable pay scale, excellent flexibility in respect to work hours, a broad spectrum of work environments, such as private practice or a hospital, flexibility to find a job almost anywhere in the world, from an urban or rural setting near home, to the far reaches of the world. While all of these benefits might be enough reason or motivation for someone to enter the dental field, my interest goes far beyond the benefits. Impacted as a small girl by a dental trauma, my exposure and interest in the dental field grew from numerous positive experiences and left me with a thirst to spend time in a dental setting; first from a patien t perspective, and then as a student. My motivation and interest stems from a lifelong love and fascination for teeth. As the years have passed, I did and still do become excited about walking into a dental office. The sounds, the smells, the instruments, being in a dental chair as a patient, or being chair side assisting, are all aspects I love. I am extremely fortunate to have had the opportunity to train as a dental assistant and gain many hours of hands on experience through volunteer clinics and workingShow MoreRelatedPersonal Statement : Special Education855 Words   |  4 Pageseducator. As they journey through college, to pursue the knowledge needed for their career, their passion leads them to special education. These teachers fine this career to be job satisfying, have empathy for the children, and the vacancy of the position viability. Not all teacher feel the same however, over time their dissatisfied with their job and leave because their brunt out. One of the reason people chose a career in special education is job satisfaction. Special education teacher perceived theirRead MoreBecoming A Doctor Is Not An Easy Process For Majority Of The Population1351 Words   |  6 Pagesprocess for majority of the population; for others it’s natural. The career I find interesting and may pursue is a Pediatrics doctor. Pediatricians are doctors who specialize in children, ranging from new born babies to eighteen years old. Individuals interested in this field will need a sense of mentality and dedication to work hard. Becoming a doctor is not an easy process; it takes time, motivation, and interest for this type of career. 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Nacl on Peroxidase Activity Free Essays

NaCl Effects on Peroxidase Activity My experiment was to see if adding NaCl to solution would have any effects on peroxidase activity. The materials that were used in this experiment were pH 7 buffer(DI water), peroxidase, NaCl, guaiacol and hydrogen peroxide; added in that order. Blanks were created for each NaCl concentration, 0%, 5%, 7. We will write a custom essay sample on Nacl on Peroxidase Activity or any similar topic only for you Order Now 5% and 10%. Each cuvette had . 5ml of pH 7 buffer, 1ml of peroxidase, . 02ml guaiacol for the experimental cuvettes and 0ml of guaiacol for the blank cuvettes, . 2ml of hydrogen peroxide and . ml of different concentrated NaCl in each cuvette. When it came to recording data for my experiment, I placed the cuvette in the spectrometer, which was set to 500nm, after adding the guaiacol and hydrogen peroxide right before. I recorded the absorbance every 15 seconds for 3 minutes. I ran the experiment twice for precision and got the average of the two tests. I then entered the data into JMP and made two graphs; one to see the relationship between the concentration of NaCl and activity and the other to see how salt affect enzyme activity. The first graph only required the time and the mean absorbance. To make the second graph, I had to find Time X, the time where reaction starts to slow down, which in my case was 90 seconds. The axes for the graph were Time X as the y-axis and NaCl concentrations as the x-axis. The graphs showed me that there is a relationship between NaCl concentrations and peroxidase activity. More the concentration of NaCl, the faster the reaction occurs. How to cite Nacl on Peroxidase Activity, Papers

Information Systems in Business free essay sample

List of the databases in which data about you exists †¢Flat- file data bases. The flat file databases are used to store small amounts of data that is required to be edited by the hand. They are made up of files strings that combine one or more files and they are effective in storing simple data lists but they become complex if the data structures are replicated. Flat file databases require a simple approach to the methods of storing data, therefore if complex data types are stored, the file become unreadable for the individual using the data bases. Many companies use the flat file data bases in storing their data since they are easily assessed and edited (Matthias, 2003). †¢Server databases The server databases uses the Internet and it is easily accessed by the clients at any time, for instance, 24 hours, one week. The clients are able to access the websites in order to retrieve the data. Server databases are applicable to many companies that require to make applications and communications on data issues anywhere in the world. Server databases have a special feature that allows the clients to provide specific data requests from the database and then it is the responsibility of the database to perform the function (Matthias, 2003). †¢Relational databases An example of a rational database includes the SQL server databases. These types of databases uses a logical formulation in the processes that they store data. For instance presentation of tables in data storing where by each field is described by a certain character. The realtions in the databases are described when the characters are linked with one another. many companies uses the relational data,bases since they are effective when they are designed propely and therfre resulting to clear data analysis without any duplication (Bing, 2011). ii): Make a list of the databases in which data about you exists. How is the data in each database captured, updated and how often? What data privacy concerns do you have? Explain briefly. Data sources are defined by their portability mechanisms and the independent approaches that enhances the connection of the databases. There are different types of data sources and they are introduced to define a certain database. An application can be used to define different types of database by changing the components of the data source. There are three different types of data sources, managed data sources,native data source and operational data sources (Pang,2001). †¢Managed data sources Managed data sources define the approaches used in error handling mechanisms, connections pooling as well as global transaction management. Since they are applicable on global transactions they are usually updated on daily basis. A managed data source in a data warehouse provides all the implementation mechanisms and interfaces that are issued in the data source. The warehouse can be able to use the managed data source in the participation of global transactions (Pang,2001). †¢Native data sources Native data sources are significant in the warehouse interface and are provided by the vendor’s sich as oracle. The native data source are different from the managed data source since the connections cannot be retrieved in global transaction. They are updated with several approaches depending on the information to be retrieved. Operational data sources All operational data sources applicable in a warehouse are used in the management of data in different sectors. The data sources are retrieved through the application of connections that enhance the operational process of data retrieving and enhancement effective. In a datawarehouse basis, information of data is retrieved from more than one ideal source therefore the application of the operational data source defines different strategies of connection to effectively define a certain data. ii): Using your company of choice example from above, explain the type of decision support that thecompany can benefit from implementation of a data warehouse. Within this context, what would bethe role of data mining? Decision support systems are important computerized information that enhances the strategies that are used in decision making (Power, 2002). The decision makers are able to use the networking communication technology, data information and other models to enhance the approach of decision making. Decision support systems are significant in the company since they provide information on graphical approaches and include expertise application on artificial intelligence (Power, 2002). BLM Company is entitled to use the communication driven decision support system that has a responsibility in targeting internal patterns. The importance of the communication driven decision support system is to enhance individual collaboration. The technology that is applied in this type of decision support system includes the client services for instance, instant messaging. Role of data mining †¢analyzing Data mining softwares are important in analyzing data from different perspectives (Bing, 2011). It analyses, categories,summaries and indicates the relationship that occurs in a given data. Data mining procedures are effective since they analyses the total components that the user wants prefers effectively. †¢Determination of valuable information Data mining is defined as the processes that are used by data software to analyses, summaries useful content. Data mining provides all the knowledge that is required to uncover certain figures related with information retrieval for several applications. In such cases, cross tabulation information, decision trees applications can assist in the retrieving of certain valuable information. QUESTION 2: Enterprise Content Management (ECM) helps companies to capture, organize and analyze particularly unstructured content to deliver better business. ECM technologies cover a broad set of capabilities. With the help of examples name and briefly explain three of such capabilities. †¢Document management capability Every department in an organization is conversant with document management capabilities. The role of ECM In most of the organization is to assist the organization on the approaches associated with document management through the introduction of policies that requires documentation cycle. ECM applies centralized methods repositories that enhance the mechanisms of discovering the information effectively and therefore the set policies enable tracking of information in the organization through the application of bar codes and labels(Handy, 2009). The centralized mechanisms have ensured that storage and protection of informations against any unauthorized use, hence they offer security on information. Record management capabilities Record management capabilities has been known as a secondary task, strategies that are associated with this capability include, the requirements on clear records assignments within the departments. Record management capabilities ensure that records are well updated in the organization to ensure that the organization maximizes transparency. The record management capabilities provides the managers with an opportunity to set up the records according to the organizations filing plans. †¢Web content management capabilities The development of web content management capabilities ensures that the organization is able to communicate effectively with employees and customers. Web content management capabilities ensures that the organizations is in a position to manage different sectors for instance multilingual Internet sites and mobile services while it ensures that these sectors are effectively updated. Summary of the findings IBM is a worldwide known company that applies the enterprise content management with software application. They provide semantic data management software within the organization. Question 3 Write the lecture summary relating to Week 9 – Topic: Data Warehouse and Data Mining data warehouse Companies are entitled with different sorts of information. The traditional methods of data storage include, invoices, sales and distribution were developed by many companies and it was a hard task that required a lot of computing producing biased and inaccurate information. With the recent innovations of technology and information systems data management and warehousing has become an easy process (Michael, 2009). The effective use of Data warehousing provides an approach of combining all the information that is required by the company. Data warehousing includes the application of all the companies data storage and the retrieving of any information is made easy. Data warehousing is made effectively through the strategies that are associated with the retrieving of information for instance, the selection process of a certain area to retrieve the data, keying of individual as the subject matter and any data information is retrieved and the group team of the organization develops extraction programs. Data warehousing is applicable in coordination of information and copying of data within the organization and outside the organization(Michael, 2009). Trusting data sources. Data warehouse is subjected with different departments with a large number of data sources from the external departments. An organization can lack the control on the quality retrieval of data into the data warehouse, and sometimes it can be a difficult process to access how the data is refreshed. The data sources used by the organization are diverse; therefore there is the need to determine strategies that can be applied in trusting data sources. Tools The tools include the simple reporting query tools which are used to tell us what has happened. On-line analytical processing gives a reason of the happenings †¢executive information system extracts information on the users who want to mess with the data warehouse †¢ data mining processes includes the all the statistical techniques that are advanced with intellectual research properties. Data mining components include, cross z softwares and the IBM . The architecture- centralised or distributed. If the data is termed as centralized then it means that only one database is applicable to a specific hardware for the access of all users. QUESTION 4 Features and tools in face book The features and tools in facebook have different importances on the representation of the companies, public figures, bands. They are the key tools of the entities and they include pages and the profile subscribers. †¢The pages Pages are used to represent company’s public figures, bands. The pages can be applicable to †¢Profiles with subscribe Profiles with subscribe consists of the strategies that an individual uses to subscribe to another person. In this case the profile with subscribes are used by multiple individuals and they include, news feed, find friends Entity attribute value model(EAV) Entity attribute value model is a data model that is used to define entity where by the parameters and properties are used to explain them. The number that is used to describe each entity is relatively modest. This model is also known as the space matrix model. Structure of an EAV table The data that is represented is defined in a spacious approach that is capable of storing the entire space matrix that is composed of occupied values. In the EAV model each parameter and property describes the entire entity and each row that is represented. In EAV model, it stores a single component. The EAV tables are also described as long and skinny in which the long strategies describe a specific number of rows while the skinny description defines the number of the columns (Michael, 2009). Data in EAV table is recorded and retrieved in three columns, entity, the parameters and the values. The entity colum defines the item description and the parameter column defines the attribute characters for instance, name, and ID and the value define the attributes.

Ethnographic Paper Essays - Fashion, Body Modification, Tattoo

Ethnographic Paper The Pleasure of Pain These days anything can be considered art. The structure of a building, the human body, music on the radio, love, Versacis new line of winter, and pretty transvestites walking down the street are just a few of hundreds of thousands of examples. That kind of art is overrated. Most of these only exist because of society. As people grow and change so does the values and traditions that they are accustomed to. True art hangs on the walls of museums all over the world. Paintings by Monet, Da Vinci, and Picasso represent all that can be made beautiful by a mans touch. The word tattoo comes from the Tahitian word tattau, which means to tap, and can be traced back through a part of history. The art of tattoos has been evident since ancient Egypt and more than 1,500 years ago the Japanese marked criminals as a symbol of shame for their punishment (Britannica, 2000). In the nineteenth century tattoos were viewed as frightful and grotesque, but as the twentieth century rolled by technology gave way to the trend. The electric needle created a sense of precision and control. This is how the various designs developed and tattooing became more about expression, rather than branding. It is a guarantee that tattoo and piercing artists can be found by the thousands in a metropolitan city. Their form of art may be simpler to an extent, but it has been growing in popularity for years. By using the body as a gateway for expression, people can present themselves in a new light, and as a mean for recreating their image. The concept of transferring art on paper to the body for the mere purpose of self-pleasure is attracting all types of people. It is impossible to walk through a mall without spotting people of all ages with this type of branding. Young adults have accepted this practice as a normal part of their culture. You cant escape it. Says Walter Hewitt, who recently completed a 19-school study on tattoos and piercing (Vogel, 2000). There are big ones, small ones, tasteful ones, tacky ones, and probably some temporary ones, and because tattooing is forever and also carries a mental heath risk known as regret, the decision to get one shouldnt be taken lightly. The customer is very vulnerable when entering a tattoo and piercing parlor, because all their trust for a good product is put in the hands of the artist. But how are we to know the artists level of experience, the reputation of their business, the cleanliness of their needles, the moderate price of a piercing or tattoo, or even if the area of work on the body is prone to infection? An article from The San Diego Union-Tribune states that, It [tattoos and piercing] has become so popular that professional piercers around the globe are seeking legislation that would establish sanitation and safety regulations for those in the piercing business. Since the hollow needles that are used in piercing and tattooing can carry hepatitis, tuberculosis, the virus that ca uses AIDs and various skin diseases, business are looking for legal protection and supervision by the state. Despite its growing popularity, body piercing is only regulated in seven states. Before entering Ground Zero Tattoos, located at 329 Northwestern Avenue, I assumed that every tattoo and piercing parlor looks the same. Of course, there should be an area where the tattoo and piercing artists do their work, and another area for the customers. Also, there would be mirrors, couches, a coffee table, and a few ashtrays resting on magazines. Pictures of naked women, tribal art, and Chinese symbols would line the walls so the customers can find something they like. The atmosphere would consist of cigarette smoke, and an intense mood floating in the air. I decided to go to Ground Zero to see if it fit my mold of a tattoo parlor. I found myself parking my car in between the yellow lines in front of Ground Zero. The beige bricks hugged the building, and the dark brown door begged me to come in. As I stepped out of my car, the sign that said Ground Zero displayed just a

Dress reflects class essays

Dress reflects class essays Chaucers The Canterbury Tales were organized diversity of occupation, character and dress. The way in which stock characters are used to attempt to defeat family difficulties can be explored in She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith. The pair of young lovers CO-OPERATE together toward this end. In old days and nowadays we dress nicely to impress others. In old days like Chaucerian and Restoration period, dress used to reflect their class. Better dress meant higher class, usually. So dress had meanings more than showing off the wealth of people. Of course, rich people had better dress as in these days, and they were usually in a higher class. In The Canterbury Tales, the color of clothes is mostly dark colors including Monks, but Restoration period uses brighter colors which remind me enlighten and party peoples. There are some similarities as well. In The Canterbury tales and She Stoops to Conquer, people like to show off how much rich they are. The women, they had to wear nice fancy clothes, and they had to wear recent stylish clothes to show their beauty and wealth. They had to wear these fancy clothes, because it also represented their social status. In these periods class was noticeable by their clothes. Maybe wearing a good cloth is influenced by their culture. Ive seen some history books and I saw some Old Europeans wearing really nice clothes. No matter how old they are, people wore really nice clothes. Mrs. Hardcastle she was an old lady but she dressed richly to show her wealth. The Wife of Bath from The Canterbury Tales is similar to Mrs. Hardcastle. They like to wear fancy clothes and it seems like they likes to show off their wealth. The women desired these clothes very much. In line 50 from the She Stoops to Conquer, yearns for the latest fashion and London Society, but yearns in vain spoken by Mrs. Hardcastle. So I can tell Restoration period, people really wanted fan ...

Hr1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Hr1 - Essay Example Explain the Purpose of Human Resource Management Policies in Organisations 16 3.2. Analysing the Impact of Regulatory Requirements on HRM Policies of Millennium Hotels 18 3.2.1. Positive Impacts of Regulatory Requirements on HRM Policies 18 3.2.2. Negative Impacts of Regulatory Requirements on HRM Policies 19 Task 4 20 4.0. Examining Human Resource Management in an Organisation 20 4.1. Analysing the Impact of Organisational Structure and Culture on HRM 20 4.2. Impact of Culture on HRM 21 4.3. Effectiveness of HRM on Monitoring Organisational Performance 22 4.4. Recommending Steps towards Improving HR Functions 23 Conclusion 24 References 26 Introduction The organisations in the present competitive business environment seek to increase their capability of managing and controlling the performance of their workforce for the purpose of competing with their major rivals and accomplishing superior competitive position. In this similar context, the idea concerning Human Resource Management (HRM) of different organisations play a fundamental role towards strengthening the optimal performance of the workforce and enabling the organisations to gain overall business or operational efficiency in this composite business environment. The conception of HRM considerably ensures to provide adequate potential synergy in order to empower the substantial growth of a particular organisation. Moreover, the concept of HRM can also be considered as one of the major influencing factors of an organisation which facilitates to enjoy adequate capability of increasing the performance of the workforce and attaining the desired objectives of the organisations (SAGE Publications, n.d.). In the context of Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM), the thought i.e. HRM can be regarded as a holistic approach which ensures to align human resource (HR) related functions of an organisation with its strategic objectives. The primary objective of SHRM implies the practice of identifying the key area s of HRM and developing effective strategy to meet the ultimate organisational goals and objectives (Salaman & et. al., 2005). With this concern, the primary objective of this report is to understand the contribution of SHRM in Millennium Hotels towards the attainment of its desired business objectives. Additionally, the discussion would further identify and analyse the major factors that underpins the need of an adequate HRM plan for Millennium Hotels. Furthermore, the purpose of HRM policies and their potential impacts will also be analysed in accordance with the HRM policies of Millennium Hotels. At last, the report will be concluded through analysing the impact of organisational structure and culture in the HRM practices and examining the efficiency of HRM in Millennium Hotels. Task 1 1.1. Significance of Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) Functions The practice of SHRM can be observed as the approach of preserving effective interrelation between the organisational strat egic decisions and overall HRM strategies. It intends to build a paramount approach for an organisation on achieving a greater degree of managing capability to efficiently attain its predetermined business goals (Gratton & Truss, 2003). In the context of Millennium Hotels, the approach i.e. SHRM can be viewed as one of the major attributes behind the continuous success of the organisation in the global hospitality industry. In relation to the fiercely growing competitiveness in the modern business

Difference in Elderly Care between US and Japan Essay

Difference in Elderly Care between US and Japan - Essay Example Elderly Health Care in US and Japan become very important because of the increasing number of the elders in these countries and the fast growth of the country, even without having much time to spare for their family. One of the recent studies conducted in U.S. about the ratio of the elders points out that the number of elders in U.S. is estimated that "35.6 million people -12.2% of the population ...are 65 and older and by 2011, the baby boom generation will begin to turn 65, and by 2030, one in five people is projected to be age 65 and older." (Senior facts: Non medical in home care facts: Facts on aging, n.d). The given data points to the number of elders in U.S. and shows that their number covers 12.2% of the population. It also shows the necessity of giving great care to elders that their number is expected to be one in five people by 2030 which is not at all a lesser number. The United States contains less than five percent of the world's population and thirteen percent of its p eople are above the age of eighty. The growth rate of elderly population is considerably increasing day by day. It may double manifold in the coming years. It indicates the need for more activities to give assistance to the elderly people. When one analyzes the Elderly Care in U.S. and Japan it is understood that elderly care in these countries are different and U.S. stands much better among the two in Elderly Care. The United States has implemented many facilities for the elderly people especially for their health. An observation of U.S. health care reveals that the health care in United States is consistent with basic standards is largely unknown. One among the methods of elderly care in U.S. is Hospital Care. It is generally provided by physicians. They provide both inpatient and outpatient services. As the elders are in need of great care and concentration a group of doctors and nurses are needed to monitor them. These elderly patients who are admitted to the hospital are physically unstable and they need full time observation and care to maintain their physical as well as mental health. The hospital care is equipped with all the care taking measures so that the people who want to give a satisfactory care to their elderly relatives automatically turn to the Hospital Care facility. Another facility is that of the Nursing Home. The elderly people will have a facility where they are watched over by nurses and staff as well. Here they get help for all sorts of daily living activities. Say for example, they get food in correct time, get bathed and the pills that help them to sustain their health sound.  

Analysis And Comparison Of Diageo And Sab Miller Marketing Essay

Analysis And Comparison Of Diageo And Sab Miller Marketing Essay This case study aims to analyse, compare and contrast strategic financial management of Diageo plc and SAB Miller plc. The analysis also identifies and explores the factors which are responsible for the current financial position and development of both the companies and critically evaluate the factors involves in future growth, development and change. To evaluate the performance of each company and compare them the financial analysis tools used are SWOT, the profit impact of market strategy (PIMS) and some comparison continued thereafter. In the end there is a conclusion for taking the summary of involved companies into consideration as to which company can be concluded to be more successful. Diageo plc Diageo is known for one the of world leading manufactures in liquors market. It is manufacturer of branded beer, premium spirits and wine products. Diageo market its premium alcohol beverages in more than 180 markets around the world. Its 17 brand range comes in the top 100 premium distilled spirits brands worldwide. Diageo produces premium spirits under brands including Smirnoff, Johnnie Walker, Captain Morgan, Baileys, JB, Jose Cuervo, Tanqueray, Guinness, and Crown Royal. Diageos wine brands include Blossom Hill, Sterling, Beaulieu, Chalone, Navarro Correas, Rosenblum Cellars and Santa Rita. There are few other beer brands of the company include Harp, Smithwicks, Tusker and Red Stripe. Diageo operates in four mail markets are: Asia Pacific, Europe, International and North America. Diageo sees a revenue of  £12,958 million ($20,491.8 million) during the financial year ended June 2010 (FY2010), an increase of 5.5% over FY2009. Hence contribute to operating profit of the company to  £2,574 million ($4,070.5 million) in FY2010, an increase of 6.5% over FY2009. The net profit was  £1,629 million ($2,576.1 million) in FY2010, an increase of 1.5% over FY2009. (www.datamonitor.com) SWOT Analysis for Diageo plc Strength Adequate range of brand in premium spirits segment Due to involvement in various area of operations leads to less business Weakness Debt is a huge burden for this company The way legal procedure goes in this firm that may affect corporate image in bad manner Opportunities A great increase in demand in global spirits market Buying new companies, widen the market space and range of product as well Wine market growth also a positive sign Threats High degree of competition Very strict advertising rules Unavailability of cheaper labour SABMiller plc SABMiller is also a worlds biggest giant in liquor industries who has spanned across the six continents around the world. This company has more than 200 brands under its belt and market it across 75 countries. SABMiller operation mainly involves across producing beer and soft drinks. SABMiller offers premium beers brands such as Draft, Grolsch, Miller Genuine, Peroni Nastro Azzurro and Pilsner Urquell. It also markets a range of local brands such as Aguila, Castle, Miller Lite, Snow and Tyskie. Additionally, the company is engaged in the bottling business, and is one of the largest bottlers of Coca-Cola products. SABMillers operates in: Latin America; Europe; South Africa; Africa; Asia; and North America and headquartered in London, which employs about 70,131 people. SABMiller earned revenues of $18,020 million during the financial year ended March 2010 (FY2010), less than of 3.7% as compared to 2009. The operating profit of the company was $2,619 million in FY2010, less than of 16.8% as compared to 2009. The net profit was $1,910 million in FY2010, an increase of 1.5% over 2009. (www.datamoitor.com) SWOT Analysis for SABMiller plc Strength Top runner globally diversified brewer especially in African and Latin American countries Huge range of international and local brands Impressive cash productivity Weakness Less involvement to the Asian beer market though important player in China and India Opportunities Tie up with big retailers for distribution. Latin American acquisition to expand operations To improve the business and financials so restructuring initiatives Threats Huge competition Margins can be affected by hike in raw materials Bad perception pertaining to health in terms of beer as compared to wine PIMS (Profit Impact of Marketing Strategy) Analysis of Diageo Plc vs. SAB Miller Plc Competitive Position: Diageo is worlds top 10 premium spirit brands having volume of 55% in market and leads among each segment of beverage alcohol. Diageo focus on essential market taking that parts bigger economies in consideration. Diageo manage these markets are under four geographical areas: North America (United States and Canada), Europe (Great Britain, Ireland, Continental Europe, Iberia and Russia). The International business area comprises Latin America and the Caribbean (including Mexico), Africa and the Global Travel and Middle East business. The Asia Pacific business area comprises India, China, South Korea, Japan and other Asian markets, Australia and New Zealand. North America accounts for the largest proportion of Diageos operating profit. (www.diageo.com) C:UsersHimeshDesktopDia.PNG Source: www.diageo.com On the other hand when we compare the market share of SABMiller with that of Diageo, SABMiller operating brewing and distribution across six continents and is involves in over 55 countries. They have over 200 owned brands and six of their brands are among the top 50 in the world. In South Africa, where SAB Ltd began the year with the loss of a major premium brand to a competitor, overall volumes remained level while mainstream volumes grew satisfactorily by mid-single digits. (www.sabmiller.com) Production Structure: Diageo establishes its most of the product as world premium brands, regional brands and segmented brands. In the market the major player for Diageo is its world premium brands which are responsible for its growth. Commenting on Companys operational performance in a conference of the US analysts (2008), Chief Executive, Paul Walsh mentioned, Weve reported another year of strong organic growth, with net sales up 7% and operating profit up 9%, with free cash flow of  £1.25 billion. Our return on invested capital increased 50 basis points to 14.9%. We have returned  £1.9 billion to shareholders, with dividends of  £857 million and share buybacks of  £1 billion. And were recommending a full-year dividend per share of 34.35p, which will be up 5% on last year. (www.diageo.com) As we talk about SAB Miller, the firm grown to some US$1,978 million (2008: US$1,191 million) by simultaneously investing huge budget. This investment also improves manufacturing and selling to take full advantage of the market. Investment also increased due to the some key market currency strengthening as compared to US dollar. (www.sabmiller.com) In Morgan Stanley Conference, held in New York (2008), the company announced that they will continue to invest for growth while re-examining costs and CapEx. This includes continued investment in brands, packaging and innovation, new capacity being commissioned over coming year, cost productivity remaining a focus and re-examining all capital expenditures. (www.sabmiller.com/files/presentations) Attractiveness of the served market: Diageo long term goal aims at the continuous growth and increase shareholder value. When merger of Grand Metropolitan Public Limited Company (GrandMet) and Guinness PLC (the Guinness Group) took place Diageo was formed and simultaneously take over some companies and sold non-profit properties with the strategy of mainly focusing on premium brand. In the period from the merger in December 1997 to 30 June 2009, the group has received approximately  £10.5 billion from disposals (including  £4.3 billion from the sale of Pillsbury,  £1.9 billion from the sale of General Mills shares and  £0.7 billion from the sale of Burger King) and spent approximately  £5.6 billion on acquisitions (including  £3.7 billion in relation to certain Seagram businesses). (www.diageoreports.com) According to report of Chief Executive in the annual report (2009) of SAB Miller Group, This year has seen another strong performance with results continuing the trend of several very strong years. Adjusted earnings per share grew by 19%, bringing the compound annual growth rate over the last six years to some 20% per annum. At 143.1 US cents, our adjusted earnings per share have very nearly trebled since 2002. In the annual report of SAB Miller they have highlighted their key area of focus is to improve their routes to market both to remove costs and to ensure that the right products reach the right outlets in the right condition, accompanied by the right messages and merchandising material. Comparison of Financial Strategies of Diageo Plc and SAB Miller Plc Diageo Plc Diageo operates worldwide with its premium drinks and one of few companies who involves in beer, spirit and wine market. Diageo stood 8th of the worlds top 20 premium spirits brands on profit and business basis. Diageos produce world famous beer like Guinness, and contribute to approximately 22% of net sales while wine comes approximately 6% of Diageos net sales. Diageos size adds to low cost in production, selling and marketing. Due to this cost cutting they concentrate on cost effectiveness of the product and betterment of consumer services The most important it retains and attracts talented individuals who contribute for betterment of the strategies and increase business through organic sales hence profit as well acquisition of premium brands that valuable to the shareholders. (www.diageo .com) According to Bender and Ward (2004), if a key competitive strength of the existing business is built on the current product attributes or strong branding which have created very local customers, a strategic thrust for continued growth could be based on umbrella branding of new products with comparable attributes. From the above discussion it is clear that Diageos strategy is focused on its strength. SAB Miller Plc Within the span of 20 years SAB Miller expended its business from its base South Africa to the world, following is the list of their strategic priorities: Creating a balanced and attractive global spread of businesses: As in recent years SAB Miller acquired new companies leads to world market approach and introduced to emerging market not sticking on a particular part of the world. Few of the achievement are 7% organic volume growth and 9% group revenue growth. Developing strong, relevant brand portfolios in our local markets: Main motto to produce a good brand range that meets every consumer type and brings new improvement in terms of premiumisation, and growing demand for beer female consumers. To match with this demand a strategy is needed which tells each market dynamics and produce right range of brand for that particular market to grab the opportunity which leads to positioning of the distinct brand. Constantly raising the performance of local businesses: The greatest strength of SABMiller is operational performance. It is clearly shown by EBITA that their standard increasing day by day. At local level they are joining hand with big retailer to increase the performance. C:UsersHimeshDesktopsab.PNG Source: www.sabmiller.com Comparison of Current Position and Performance of Diageo Plc and SAB Miller Plc Diageo Plc consisted with 9% organic operating profit growth for the 30 June 2010. For 9 month span till 31 March 2010 Diageos organic net sales growth was 7% (Appendix 2), where as the growth seen in the first half on 30 June 2010. Hence no change in terms of financial position for the company. The return of cash to shareholders through the payment of dividends and the continued share buyback programme led to a reduction in net assets from  £4.2 billion at 30 June 2009 to  £3.9 billion at 31 March 2009. Paul Walsh, Chief Executive of Diageo commented: Trading in the third quarter continued in line with the first half and we are therefore maintaining our guidance for 9% organic operating profit growth for the current fiscal year. We continue to believe that the diversity and strength of our brands, the success of our marketing campaigns, our superior routes to market and our global reach will be key in delivering our performance. (Reuters, 2009) SAB Miller Plc In the year ending 30 June 2009, according to Graham Mackay, Chief Executive of SABMiller, The group recorded 1.5% growth in larger volumes. As expected organic volume performance was subdued, with larger volumes down 1.6% following the extraordinarily high growth of 13% in the prior year comparative period and reflecting lower volumes in China and the moderation of consumer spending in some markets. Group revenue growth has remained firm and financial performance in the quarter was in line with the groups expectations, although the challenging trading environment in South Africa impacted financial performance there. In the year ended 31 March 2009, the group reported US$3,639 million in adjusted pre-tax profit and revenue of US$21,410 million. (www.hemscott.com) This attitude towards good corporate governance is echoed in a statement made by Howard Davies, the chairman of the Financial Service Authority of the UK, who said in my view, investment in good corporate governance arrangements, and good regulation all those arrangements, is among the most effective and rewarding investment a developing market can make, and there are figures to prove it. (Davies, 2002) Diageo Plc vs. SAB Miller Plc Future growth and Development change Diageo Plc Looking at the current performance of Diageo Plc, they should invest to take leadership positions in every category, market and consumer occasion in which they choose to compete. They should drive brand growth by exploiting complete category participation opportunities, rather than solely focusing on individual brands within categories. Key categories include Scotch whisky, vodka and rum. In order for Diageo to grow the brand, they should ensure that they have personnel to grow. They can chose to add another brand or expand into another market segment but they need to be certain that they have a brand that they can expand upon. As mentioned by Saunders (2008) Carefully consider your existing brand. Does it evoke stability? Flavour? Health? In order to successfully expand your brand, you have to give people the same feeling they had when you first established it in the first place. Dont rush the process. Use a thesaurus to come up with like words and turn to compendiums of famous quotes and common phrases. Next step towards growth is to invest more resources into these and other brands with the best growth prospects. For this they are searching for opportunities in emerging markets. With European markets becalmed and continued economic uncertainty in the US, the emerging markets of Brazil, Russia, India and China have assumed even greater importance for Diageo. (Woodard, 2006) Though on year ending 30 June 2009, the only growth witnessed was in the top line 2% as they gained share in China and expanded in India and the markets of South East Asia. Finally, they should seek out selective acquisitions to support their brands growth. One of the key development for Diageo Plc this year is its deal with the United Spirits as United Spirit negotiates a deal with Diageo Plc for picking up a 14.9% stake. The total value of the deal works out to be around INR 18 billion. (www.businessweek.com) SAB Miller Plc SABMillers net profits climbed to 2.023 billion dollars (1.3 billion euros) in the 12 months to March 31, compared with the groups performance in 2008/09. This strong outturn to the year is particularly pleasing given the scale of the challenge we faced at its outset, with exceptional prior year comparatives, rising input costs and an increasingly competitive environment in many of our markets, SABMiller chairman Meyer Kahn said in the earnings statement. (www.uk.biz.yahoo.com) SABMiller is expected to produce a mixed bag of results with global volumes already reported to be 10% higher, led by South America, Europe and Africa/Asia, all ahead by more than 10%. The downside would be Miller in North America, which had suffered falling volumes and forecast lower earnings as higher costs like aluminium bite, analysts said. In addition, earnings growth from South Africa would be held back by the rand, which is 13 % down against the dollar from the previous year. We see the outlook statement as reassuring. The key point is SABMillers continuing confidence that it can fully offset these cost increases through price and mix improvements, said Cazenove analyst Matthew Webb. He raised his provisional earnings forecast for the year to March 2009 by 5 % to 162 %. (Reuters, 2009) The key development for SAB Miller in the current year is its decline in sales volume for the third quarter ended December 2009. The company recorded a 22% decline in the sales volume of its beer in Russia in October-December 2009 compared to the same period of 2008 due to a drop in purchases by distributors. The company sales in Europe fell 1% in the period, while global sales edged up 1%. Also, SABMiller plc may plan to make acquisitions. (www.businessweek.com) CONCLUSION According to the consolidated balance sheets (Appendix 2 3) of Diageo Plc SAB Miller Plc respectively, one can easily interpret that with an increase of revenue from last year by 14.47% for SAB Miller, gross profit has also gone up by 14% however when compared with that of Diageo Plc, it has shown an increase of only 7.53% in revenue and 7% in gross profit. From the balance sheet of both the companies it is clear that increase in the Net asset value of SAB Miller (24%) is almost double than that of Diageo Plc (12%). Diageo, under whose belt are Johnnie Walker whisky and Smirnoff vodka, fails to gain the trust of the North American and European consumer. This can be understood by as the profit without tax dipped from  £1.41bn to  £1.39bn in the first half on 31 December. There is an increase in Net sales by 3% however downfall of 2% due constant currency basis. Except from Guinness all world premium brand sales fell. SAB Miller showing great growth in world market (Appendix 1) especially in South Africa where it originated from. According to Jones (2008) British drinks giant Diageo and Dutch brewer Heineken agreed to strengthen their ties in South Africa and take on dominant domestic brewer SABMiller by building a brewery there by end-2009. Heinekens chance to expand in South Africa came in March 2007 when an International Chamber of Commerce court ruled to terminate SABMillers license to brew and distribute Heinekens Amstel beer in South Africa. Amstel dominated South Africas premium market, accounting for 9% of the national beer market and SABMiller said the license loss would cost it $80 million in annual profits. Therefore it can concluded that though looking at the current position (Appendix 1) SAB Millers performance is better than that of Diageo Plc, however it has threat from Diageo and its other competitors when we look at their upcoming acquisition strategies. Appendix 1.Share price comparison between Diageo plc, SABMiller plc and FTSE 100 C:UsersHimeshDesktopCapture.PNG Source: Yahoo UK IRELAND FINANCE In the share price chart the blue line represents SABMiller, green line Diageo and red line FTSE 100 respectively. The graph above shows share price comparison of SAB Miller plc Diageo Plc with FTSE 100 for the last 2 years. Appendix2. Consolidated Balance Sheet for Diageo plc (Source: Yahoo FINANACE) C:UsersHimeshDesktopBalance Sheet.PNG Appendix3. Consolidated Balance Sheet for SABMiller plc (Source: Yahoo FINANCE) C:UsersHimeshDesktopBalance Sheet2.PNG

The Fall of Mughal Empire

The fall of Mughal Empire Under Aurangzeb’s successors the decay of empire was hastened by several causes and the spirit of lawlessness rampant throughout the land. In such circumstances ruin of Mughal Empire was inevitable. Aurangzeb, as a ruler of India proved to be a failure. He hardly realised that the greatness of an empire depends on the progress of its people as a whole, largely owing to the emperor’s each of political foresight. The symptoms of the integration of Mughal Empire appeared before he left the world.His successors only hastened the process of decay. Disintegration of the Mughal Empire The death of Aurangzeb on the 3rd March, 1707, was a signal for the disintegration of the mighty Mughal Empire, which dazzled the contemporary world by its extensive territories, military might and cultural achievements. The reign of Aurangzeb was the swan-song of the Mughal rule in India. No sooner had he breathed his last then his three sons Muazam, Muhammad Azam and M uhammad Khan Baksh entered into bitter oratorical quarrels for the possession of the throne of Delhi.While nine Mughal Emperors followed one another in quick succession in the fifty years following the death of Aurangzeb, many adventurers Indian and foreign carved out independent principalities for themselves. Mughal government of Oudh, Bengal and the Deccan freed themselves from the control of the Central Government. The Hindu powers found the time opportune for assertion of their independence. Invaders from the North-West repeated their incursions in search of wealth and the European trading companies interfered in Indian Politics.In spite of all these external and internal dangers, dissolution process of the Central structure of the great Mughal Empire was slow and long drawn out process. BajiRao’s raid of Delhi(1773) and Nadir Shah’s invasion(1739) exposed the hollowness of the Mughal Empire and by 1740 the fall of the empire was an accomplished fact. Among the var ious causes responsible for decline and the downfall of the great Empire the following deserve special mention: 1. Aurangzeb’s responsibility. The expansion of the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb resembled an inflated balloon. The empire has expanded beyond the point of effective control.Its vastness in the absence of developed means of communication tended to weaken the centre instead of strengthening it. The emperor’s religious policy provoked a general discontent in the country and the empire was faced with rebellions of the Sikhs, the Jats, the Bundelas, the Rajputs and above all the Marathas. Aurangzeb only created enemies. His narrow bigoted religious policy turned the Rajputs, a reliable supporter of the Imperial dynasties into foes. He re-imposed â€Å"Jeiza† on the Hindus which led to the rising of the Satnamis, Bundelas and the Jats. The Sikhs rose against the empire paralysing Imperial administration in the Punjab.The Hindu resistance in the Maharashtra assumed a national character. The Maratha guerrillas demoralised the splendid armies of Aurangzeb, broke their spirit of superiority and wore them out. One of the strongest reasons of the annexation of the Shia Kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda was religious. The conquest of these Muslim kingdoms of the south removed the strongest local check on Maratha activities and left them free to organise resistance of Mughal Imperialism. Aurangzeb’s mistaken policy of war in the Deccan which continued for twenty seven years drained the resources of the empire.The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda were Shias and for a fanatical Sunni like Aurangzeb there was no place for them in India. The annexation of these States was a blunder. He should have followed a buffer-state policy towards these kingdoms. He should have subordinated his religious zeal to statesmanship. If he had helped these states against the Marathas, he would have been able to keep the latter in check with much less expense a nd waste of energy. After the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda, Aurangzeb tried to crush the power of the Marathas; Sambhaji the son of Shivaji was captured and put to death.His son Sahu was also made a prisoner. However the Marathas carried on their struggle against the Mughal under the leadership of Raja Ram and Tara Bai. When Aurangzeb died in 1707, the power of the Marathas was not still crushed. They were stronger than before. Well I think, â€Å"The Deccan was the grave of his reputation as well as of his body†. He had to remain a way from the capital for a quarter of a century. The result was that the whole of the administration went out of gear. There was confusion everywhere. The provincial Governors did not send the land revenue to Central Government.At a time when money was needed for Deccan war, very little was coming from the provinces. No wonder when Bahadur Shah succeeded to the throne, the treasury was empty. After the death of Aurangzeb various provinces be came independent of the Central authority. Oudh became independent under Saadat Khan Bengal, Bihar and Orissa became independent under AlivardiKhan. Asaf Jat Nizam-ul-Mulk became indepent in the Deccan. The Rohillas became independent in Rohilkhand. The Rajputs also asserted their independence. Thus, gradually the Mughal empire broke up.The failure of Aurangzeb in the Deccan wars destroyed the military prestige of the Mughals. Too much of expenditure made the Mugahl government bankrupt. The Deccan wars can rightly be called the ‘Ulcer’ which destroyedthe Mughal Empire. Weak Successors of Aurangzeb Aurangzeb died in 1707 and before his death he left a will by which he portioned his empire among his three sons. Inspite of this a bitter fratricidal war took place among the three princes for the throne. Muazzam was the ruler of Kabul and the Punjab, Muhammad Azim the second son was the ruler of the deccan. Prince Muazzam came to the throne after defeating his brothers.The M ughal system of government being despotic much depended on the personality of the emperor. Under a strong emperor all went well but the succession of a weak emperor was reflected in every filed administration. Unfortunately all the succession after Aurangzeb were weaklings and quite incapable to meet the challenges from within and without far from stemming the tide of decline, they arranged the situation by their idiosyncrasies and lacks morals. Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) was 69 at the time of his succession to the throne and was too old to maintain the prestige of the empire.He liked to appease all parties by profuse by grants of titles and rewards. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) the next in succession was a luxury profligate fool. Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) was a contemptible coward. Mohammad Shah (1719-1748) spent most of the time watching animal fights. He was nicknamed â€Å"Rangila† for his addiction to wine and women. During his rule Nadir Shah attacked Delhi and Subedars be came independent. Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) excelled his predecessors in his sensual pursuits. He was unable to cope successfully with the disintegration forces that had grown so alarming on all sides.The empire was reduced to a small district round Delhi. The emperor was deposed and blinded in 1754 by the ‘wasir’. He was succeeded by Alamgir II and he was succeeded by Shah Alum who came under British and Maratha protection. Such weak and imbecile Emperors could hardly act as worthy custodians of public interests or maintain the integrity of the empire. Degeneration of Mughal Nobility When Mughal came to India they had hardly a character. Too much of wealth, luxury and leisure softened their character. Their ‘harems’ became full. They got wine in plenty.They went in palanquins to the battlefield. Such nobles were not fit to fight against the Marathas, the Rajputs and Jats and the Sikhs. The Mughal nobility degenerated at a very rapid pace. The Mughals nobility was taken from the Turks, the Afghan and the Persians and the climate of India was not very suitable for their growth. They began to degenerate during their stay in India. Ruddy warriors in boots, became pale persons in petticoats : â€Å"Where wealth accumulates men decay; And disloyalty on the empire did pray† We have a significant example of the moral degeneration of the Mughal peerage.The Prime Minister’s grandson Mirza Tafakh-kjur used to sally worth from the mansion in Delhi, with his ruffians plunder the shops in the bazars, kidnap Hindu women passing through the public streets in litters or going to the river to dishonour them; and yet there was no judge strong enough to punish him, no police to prevent such crimes. Every time such an occurrence was brought to the Emperor’s notice by the news letters or official reports, he referred it to the prime minister and did nothing more. Court Factions Broadly speaking, the nobles were ranged in two parties.Thos e two were children of the soil or the Indo-Muslim party. To this group belonged the Afghan nobles, the Sayyeds of Barha and Khan-i-Dauran whose ancestors came from Badakhastan. These Indian Muslims depended mostly on the help of their Hindu compatriots. The foreign nobles of diverse origin, opposed as a class to the members of the Hindustani party; were indiscriminately called Mughals. They were sub-divided into two groups according to the land of their origin. Those who came from Transoxiano and other parts of central Asia and were mostly of Sunni, persuasion formed the Turkani party.The most prominent members of this group was Mohammed Amin Khan and his Cousin Chin-Qillich Khan better known as the Nizam-ul-Mulk. The Irani party was composed of those who hailed for the Persian territories and were Shias. The most important members of the Irani party were Asad Khan and Zulfiqar Khan, the king maker. These were mere factions and were not like modern political parties. Their members had no common principle of action among themselves except of self-interest and no firm party allegiance. They fought battles, upsetting the peace of the country and throwing administration to dogs.Even in the face of foreign danger these hostile groups could not forge a united front and often intrigued with invadors. Defective Law of Succession The absence of the law of primogeniture among the Mughals usually meant a war of succession among the sons of the dying Emperor in which the military leaders of the times took sides. â€Å"The sword was the grand arbiter of right and every son was prepared to try his fortune against his brothers† Such a system though not commendable was not without its advantages. It provided the country with the ablest son of the dying emperor as the ruler. Demoralization in the Mughal ArmyThe abundance of riches of India, the use of wine and comforts had very evil effects on the Mughal army. Nothing was done to stop the deterioration. The soldiers ca red more for their personal comforts and less for winning battles. The importance of the Mughal armies was declared to the world when they failed to conquer Balkh and Badakhashar in the time of Shah Jahan. Likewise the failure of Shah Jahan to recapture Kandar inspite of three determined efforts proved to the world that the military machine of the Mughal had become imporatant. In 1739 Nadir Shah not only murdered the people of Delhi but also ordered their wholesale massacre.When such a thing is done by a foreigner, it only proves that the existing government is helpless. Such a government forfeits the right to exact allegiance from the people as it fails to protect life and property of the people. There were inherent defects in Mughal military system. The army was organised more or less on the feudal basis where the common soldier owed allegiance to the mansabdar rather than the Emperor. The soldier looked upon the mansabdar as their chief, not an officer. The defects of this system though evident enough in revolts of Bairam Khan and Mahabat Khan assumed alarming proportions under the later Mughal Kings. Only forced by need does he came out of the moat His army best knows how to turn from the fight; The Infantry – afraid to the barber that shaves; The Cavalry – fall off from their beds in their sleep; But in a dream – they see their mount frisk†. Economic Bankruptcy After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire faced financial bankruptcy. The Deccan wars ruined the finances of the empire. The marches of the Imperial army damaged crops in Deccan while the beasts of burden ate away all the standing crops and greenery. Whatever little was left was destroyed by the Marathas Raiders.There was dislocation of trade and industry. Extravagant expenditure was a crushing burden upon the resources of the country. Nature of the Mughal State The Mughal government was essentially a police government and confined its attention mainly to the mainta inance of internal and external order and collection of revenue. The Mughals failed to effect a fusion between the Hindus and Muslims, an create a composite nation. All laudable efforts made by Akbar in this direction were undone by the bgotry of Aurangzeb and his successors.

South America

Introduction The continent of South America has about one-eighth of the Earth's land surface, situated between latitudes 12 °N-55 °S and longitudes 80 °-35 °W; no other continent has a greater latitudinal span. Eighty percent of its land mass is within the tropical zone, yet it extends into the subantarctic. The extensive zones of temperate and cold climates in the vicinity of the Equator, in the Andes, are unique. The land area of about 17,519,900-17,529,250 km? is under the jurisdiction of 13 countries (Table 49); French Guiana is governed as an overseas department of France.The region's 1995 population of c. 320 million people is estimated to reach 452 million people in 2025. Three of the world's 21 megacities are in South America: Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro (WRI, UNEP and UNDP 1994). Geological setting Although the neotropics may be conveniently considered as a single phytogeographic unit, the region is geologically complex. The neotropics include not only the South American continental plate but the southern portion of the North American plate, as well as the independent Caribbean plate (Clapperton 1993).The complicated geological history of the region, for example as these plates intermittently separated and collided through the Cretaceous and the Tertiary, provides the milieu within which plant evolution has been superimposed. South America has been an island continent during most of the period of angiosperm evolution, whereas Central America constitutes one of the two tropical parts of the Laurasian â€Å"world continent†. Both South America and North America have been moving westward, roughly in tandem, since the breakup of Pangaea in the Mesozoic.In contrast, the Antillean plate with its flotsam of Antillean islands formed only during the Cenozoic and has moved in a retrograde eastern direction, at least with respect to its larger neighbours. Whereas South America and North America have been widely separated through most of their geological histories, there has been generally increasing contact between them through most of the Cenozoic, culminating in their coalescence with formation of the Isthmus of Panama c. 3. 1 million years ago (Keigwin 1978).The date of this epochal event in neotropical geological history has been gradually estimated to be younger, with estimates of 5. 7 million years ago giving way to as recently as 1. 8 million years ago (Keller, Zenker and Stone 1989). In addition to their Pleistocene connection via the Isthmus of Panama, South America and North America apparently were more or less directly interconnected via the protoAntilles for a short time near the end of the Cretaceous, prior to formation of the Caribbean plate (Buskirk 1992).The outstanding geological feature of South America is the Andes, the longest mountain range in the world, which extends in a nearly straight line of over 7000 km from the north to the southern tip of the continent. The Andes have the highest mo untain in the Western Hemisphere, the highest mountain in the world's tropics, and as measured from the centre of the Earth (rather than metres above sea-level), the highest mountain in the world.The most important break in the north-south sweep of the â€Å"cordillera† is the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where the eastern chain of the cordillera is entirely ruptured (by the Maranon River) and even the western chain dips to 2145 m (at the Abra de Porculla). The existence of this massive mountain range has had profound effects on plant and animal evolution in South America, and consequently has profound effects on essential conservation priorities.In essence, the Andes represent a classical plate tectonic upthrust of continental rock, as the leading edge of the westward-moving South American plate collides with the oceanic Pacific plates. The Southern Andes are the oldest, with significant uplift already present in early Cenozoic times, prior to the Oligocene. Most of the uplift of the Central Andes was in the Miocene or later, whereas most of the uplift of the northern portion of the cordillera has been Plio-Pleistocene (van der Hammen 1974).To the north the Andes become more geologically complex, breaking into three separate cordilleras on the Ecuador/Colombia border. Much of the north-western margin of South America, including Colombia's western and central cordilleras, appears to be amassed â€Å"suspect terrane† rather than an integral part of the South American continental plate (Juteau  et al. 1977; McCourt, Aspden and Brook 1984). Much of the rest of the South American continent consists of two great crystalline shields that represent the western portion of what was once Gondwanaland.The north-eastern portion of the continent constitutes the Guayana Shield, whereas much of Brazil south of Amazonia is underlain by the Brazilian Shield. These two major shields were formerly interconnected across what is today the Lower Amazon. They consist of a Precambrian igneous basement overlain by ancient mucheroded Precambrian sediments. The Guayana region has been the most heavily eroded, with basement elevations mostly below 500 m interrupted by massive flattopped table mountains, the fabled â€Å"tepuis†, typically rising to 2000 m or 2500 m.The peak of the highest of these, Cerro Neblina or Pico da Neblina on the Venezuela/Brazil border, reaches an altitude of 3015 m and is the highest point in South America outside the Andes. The tepuis and similar formations are highest and most extensive in southern Venezuela, becoming smaller and more isolated to the west and east where La Macarena near the base of the Andes in Colombia and the Inini-Camopi Range in French Guiana respectively represent their ultimate vestiges.The quartzite and sandstone of the Guayana Shield erode into nutrient-poor sands, and much of the Guayana region is characterized by extreme impoverishment of soils. The rivers draining this regio n are largely very acidic blackwater rivers, of which the Rio Negro is the most famous. The Brazilian Shield is generally higher and less dissected, with much of central Brazil having an elevation of 800-1000 m. The Brazilian Shield is mostly drained by clearwater rivers such as the Tapajos and Xingu.In contrast to these ancient shields, the Amazonian heartland of South America is low and geologically young. Prior to the Miocene most of Amazonia constituted a large inland sea opening to the Pacific. With uplift of the Central Andes, this sea became a giant lake that gradually filled with Andean sediments. When the Amazon River broke through the narrow connection between the Guayanan and Brazilian shields near Santarem, Brazil, Amazonia began to drain eastward into the Atlantic.Nevertheless, the region remains so flat that ocean-going ships can reach Iquitos, Peru, which is only 110 m above sea-level, yet 3000 km from the mouth of the Amazon and less than 800 km from the Pacific Ocea n. Most of Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is below 200 m in elevation. The process of Amazonian sedimentation is continuing, as the sediment-laden white-water rivers course down from the Andes, continually changing their channels and depositing and redepositing their sediments along the way.About 26% of Peruvian Amazonia shows direct evidence of recent riverine reworking (Salo  et al. 1986). With the lack of relief, it is not surprising that rather fine nuances of drainage, topography and depositional history are often major determinants of vegetation. Like Amazonia, some other distinctive geological features of the South American continent are relatively low, flat and geologically young, such as the chaco/pantanal/pampa region to the south, the Venezuelan/Colombian Llanos to the north and the trans-Andean Choco region of Colombia and Ecuador to the west.Large portions of these areas have been inundated during periods of high sea-level in the past, and large portions of all o f these regions are seasonally inundated presently. One aspect of the geological history of Latin America that has received much biogeographic attention is the series of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and their effects on distribution and evolution of the present neotropical biota. It is clear from the palynological record that major changes in vegetation were associated with the cycles of Pleistocene glaciation (e. . van der Hammen 1974), although to what extent lowland Amazonia was predominantly drier (e. g. Haffer 1969; van der Hammen 1974), colder (Colinvaux 1987; Liu and Colinvaux 1988) or both, and how this affected the Pleistocene distribution of tropical forest, remain hotly contested (Colinvaux 1987; Rasanen, Salo and Kalliola 1991). Although most of the corroborative geomorphological evidence for dry periods in the tropical lowlands during the Pleistocene is now otherwise interpreted (Irion 1989; Colinvaux 1987), some new data look promising.There are also several other theories that attempt to explain aspects of present biogeography on the basis of past geological events, including river-channel formation and migration (Capparella 1988; Salo  et al. 1986; Salo and Rasanen 1989), hypothesized massive flooding in south-western Amazonia (Campbell and Frailey 1984), and the formation of a putative giant Pleistocene lake in Amazonia (Frailey  et al. 1988). Mesoamerica For its size, Middle America is even more complex geologically than South America (see Central America regional overview).Nuclear Central America, an integral part of the North American continent, reaches south to central Nicaragua. The region from southern Nicaragua to the isthmus of Darien in Panama is geologically younger and presents recent volcanism, uplift and associated sedimentation. Like South America, the northern neotropics have a mountainous spine that breaks into separate cordilleras in the north. In general the Middle American cordilleras are highest to the north in Mex ico, and lowest in Panama to the south-east.In Mexico, the geological picture is complicated by a band of volcanoes that bisects the continent from east to west at the latitude of Mexico City. This â€Å"eje volcanico transversal† is associated with the Mexican megashear, along which the southern half of the country has gradually moved eastward with respect to the northern half. In southern Central America, volcanism has been most intensive in Costa Rica, which has two sections of its Central Cordillera reaching above treeline. In northern Costa Rica and adjacent Nicaragua the volcanoes become gradually reduced in size and more isolated from each other to the north.Similarly in Panama the Central Cordillera is over 2000 m high to the west near the Costa Rican border but only about 500 m high in most of the eastern part of the country. In central Panama, the Panama Canal cuts through a continental divide of only 100 m elevation, and in the San Juan River/Lake Nicaragua area of Nicaragua the maximum elevation is even less. For montane organisms, these interruptions in the cordillera represent major biological discontinuities. The Yucatan Peninsula area of Mexico, Guatemala and Belize represents a geologically anomalous portion of Middle America.It is a flat limestone formation more like the Greater Antilles or Peninsular Florida than the mountainous terrain and volcanic soil of most of Middle America. Limestone is otherwise relatively rare in the continental neotropics, in contrast to many other parts of the world, with small outcrops like those in the Madden Lake region of central Panama or the Coloso area of northern Colombia being associated with peculiar floras. These areas, like the Yucatan Peninsula, tend to show distinctly Antillean floristic affinities, paralleling the geological ones.Caribbean The Antillean islands constitute the third geologic unit of the neotropics (see Caribbean Islands regional overview). The Antilles make up in geological co mplexity what they lack in size. The most striking geological anomaly is Hispaniola, which is a composite of what were three separate islands during much of the Cenozoic. In addition to being completely submerged during part of the midCenozoic, the southern peninsula of Hispaniola was probably attached to Cuba instead of Hispaniola until the end of the Cenozoic.Jamaica too was completely submerged during much of the mid-Cenozoic, and has a different geological history from the rest of the Greater Antilles, with closer connections to Central America via the nowsubmerged Nicaraguan Rise. Possibly a collision of the western end of the Greater Antilles island arc with Mexico-Guatemala fragmented its western end to form Jamaica. Also phytogeographically and conservationally important, some of the Antilles have extensive areas of distinctive substrates.In addition to large areas of limestone, most of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) have significant areas of serpentine and other ultrabasic rocks formed from uplift of patches of oceanic crust during the north-eastward movement of the Caribbean plate. The Lesser Antilles are small and actively volcanic. Most of the other smaller islands are low limestone keys with little or no geological relief. These patterns are clearly reflected in the Antillean flora. The most striking concentrations of local endemism occur in areas of ultrabasic rocks or on unusual types of limestone on the larger islands.The Lesser Antilles, Bahamas and other smaller islands have only a depauperate subset of the generally most widespread Antillean taxa. Vegetation The neotropics include a broad array of vegetation types commensurate with their ecological diversity. Along the west coast of South America are both one of the wettest places in the world – Tutunendo in the Choco region of Colombia, with 11,770 mm of annual precipitation, and the driest – no rain has been recorded in parts of the Atacama Desert of Chi le.The largest tract of rain forest in the world is in the Amazon Basin, and Amazonia has received a perhaps disproportionate share of the world's conservation attention. While the forests of Upper Amazonia are the most diverse in the world for many kinds of organisms, including trees as well as butterflies, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, other vegetation types have equal or greater concentrations of local endemism and are more acutely threatened.In particular, the plight of dry forests and of Andean montane forests are beginning to receive increased attention. Some isolated areas of lowland moist forest outside of Amazonia also have highly endemic floras and are currently much more threatened than Amazonia. In the following paragraphs are sketched the major neotropical vegetation types, followed by a conservation assessment of each. At the very broadest level, the lowland vegetation types of South America and the rest of the neotropics may be summarized as: 1.Tropical moi st forest (evergreen or semi-evergreen rain forest)  in Amazonia, the coastal region of Brazil, the Choco and the lower Magdalena Valley, and along the Atlantic coast of Central America to Mexico. 2. Dry forest (intergrading into woodland)  along the Pacific side of Mexico and Central America, in northern Colombia and Venezuela, coastal Ecuador and adjacent Peru, the Velasco area (Chiquitania) of eastern Bolivia, a broad swath from north-west Argentina to north-east Brazil encompassing chaco, cerrado and caatinga, and with scattered smaller patches elsewhere. 3.Open grassy savanna  in the pampas region of north-eastern Argentina and adjacent Uruguay and southernmost Brazil, the Llanos de Mojos and adjacent pantanal of Bolivia and Brazil, the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and the Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna in the Guayana region. 4. Desert and arid steppe  in northern Mexico, the dry Sechura and Atacama regions along the west coast of South America between 5 °S a nd 30 °S, and in the monte and Patagonian steppes of the south-eastern part of the Southern Cone of South America. 5. The  Mediterranean-climate region  of central Chile. 6.The  temperate evergreen forests  of southern Chile with an adjacent fringe of Argentina. More complex montane formations occur along the Andean Cordillera which stretches the length of the western periphery of South America, in the more interrupted Central American/Mexican cordilleran system, in the tepuis of the Guayana region and in the coastal cordillera of southern Brazil. Moist and wet forests In general, forests receiving more than 1600 mm (Gentry 1995) or 2000 mm (Holdridge 1967) of annual rainfall are evergreen or semi-evergreen and may be referred to as tropical moist forest.In the neotropics, lowland tropical moist forest is often further subdivided, following the Holdridge life-zone system, into moist forest (2000-4000 mm of precipitation annually), wet forest (4000-8000 mm) and pluvial fore st (over 8000 mm). Nearly all of the Amazon Basin receives 2000 mm or more of annual rainfall and constitutes variants of the moist forest. There are also several major regions of lowland moist forest variously disjunct from the Amazonian core area. These include the region along the Atlantic coast of Central America (extending into Mexico), the lower Magdalena Valley of northern Colombia, the Choco egion along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador, and the coastal forests of Brazil. Lowland moist forest is the most diverse neotropical vegetation type, structurally as well as taxonomically. In most lowland moist-forest and wet-forest regions around a quarter of the species are vines and lianas, a quarter to a half terrestrial herbs (including weeds), up to a quarter vascular epiphytes and only about a quarter trees (Gentry and Dodson 1987; Gentry 1990b).To the extent that smaller organisms such as herbs and epiphytes may demand different conservation strategies than lar ge organisms like trees (or top predators), this habitat diversity assumes conservation importance. Diversity patterns are also important for conservation planning. There is a strong correlation of plant community diversity with precipitation – wetter forests generally are more botanically diverse. For plants the most speciesrich forests in the world are the aseasonal lowland moist and wet forests of Upper Amazonia and the Choco region.For plants over 2. 5 cm dbh in 0. 1-ha samples, world record sites are in the pluvial-forest area of the Colombian Choco (258-265 species); for plants over 10 cm dbh in 1-ha plots, the world record is near Iquitos, Peru (300 species out of 606 individual trees and lianas). Concentrations of endemism do not necessarily follow those of diversity. Local endemism appears to be concentrated in cloud-forest regions along the base of the northern Andes and in adjacent southern Central America (cf.Vazquez-Garcia 1995), and in the north-western sector o f Amazonia where the substrate mosaic associated with sediments from the Guayana Shield is most complex (Gentry 1986a). Overall regional endemism in predominantly moist-forest areas is greatest in Amazonia, with an estimated 13,700 endemic species constituting 76% of the flora (Gentry 1992d). However many of these species are relatively widespread within Amazonia. The much more restricted (and devastated, see below) Mata Atlantica forests of coastal Brazil have almost three-quarters as many endemic species (c. 500) as Amazonia and similarly high endemism (73% of the flora) (Gentry 1992d). Moreover a larger proportion of the Mata Atlantica species probably are locally endemic. On the other side of South America, the trans-Andean very wet to wet and moist forests of the Choco and coastal Ecuador are also geographically isolated and highly endemic (cf. Terborgh and Winter 1982). Estimates of endemism in the Choco phytogeographic region are c. 20% (Gentry 1982b). Probably about 1260 or 20% of western Ecuador's 6300 naturally occurring species also are endemic (Dodson and Gentry 1991).For the northern Andean region as a whole, including both the coastal lowlands of western Colombia and Ecuador and the adjacent uplands, Gentry (1992d) estimated over 8000 endemic species, constituting 56% of the flora. Moreover this is probably the floristically most poorly known part of the neotropics, perhaps of the world, surely with several thousand mostly endemic species awaiting discovery and description. Dry forests There are seven main areas of dry forest in the neotropics, and by some estimations this may be the most acutely threatened of all neotropical vegetations.The interior dry areas of South America are outstanding in their regional endemism, estimated at 73%. Two of the most extensive neotropical dry-forest areas represent manifestations of the standard interface between the subtropical high pressure desert areas and the moist equatorial tropics. In Middle America, th is area of strongly seasonal climate occurs mostly along the Pacific coast in a narrow but formerly continuous band from Mexico to the Guanacaste region of north-western Costa Rica.There are also outliers farther south in the Terraba Valley of Costa Rica, Azuero Peninsula of Panama, and even around Garachine in the Darien (Panama), partially connecting the main Middle American dry forest with that of northern South America. These western Middle American dry forests are made up almost entirely of broadleaved deciduous species. In addition, the northern part of the Yucatan and large areas of the Antilles are covered by dry-forest variants. Most of the Caribbean dry forests are on limestone, and their woody species tend to be distinctively more sclerophyllous and smaller leaved than are the Pacific coast dry-forest plants.In the driest areas, both these types of dry forest tend to smaller stature and merge into various kinds of thorn-scrub matorral. In South America, only the extreme n orthern parts of Colombia and Venezuela reach far enough from the Equator to enter the strongly seasonal subtropical zone. Floristically and physiognomically this northern dry area is very much like similarly dry areas of western Middle America. The strongly seasonal region of northern South America also includes the open savannas of the Llanos extending from the Orinoco River west and north to the base of the Eastern Cordillera of he Colombian Andes and the north slope of the Coast Range of Venezuela. Large areas of the lowlying, often poorly drained Llanos are seasonally inundated, especially in the Apure region. The main area of tropical dry forest in South America is the chaco region, encompassing the western half of Paraguay and adjacent areas of Bolivia and Argentina, south of 17 °S latitude. The â€Å"chaco† is physiognomically distinctive in being a dense scrubby vegetation of mostly smallleaved, spiny branched small trees interspersed with scattered large individua ls of a few characteristic species of large trees.To the south, the chaco gives way to the desert scrub of the Argentine monte. There is a distinctive but generally neglected area of dry forest at the interface between the chaco and Amazonia in Bolivia. The names Chiquitania and Velasco forest have been used locally in Bolivia to refer to this vegetation, which extends from the Tucuvaca Valley and Serrania de Chiquitos in easternmost Santa Cruz Department interruptedly westward to the base of the Andes and along much of the lower Andean slopes of the southern half of Bolivia.This region of closed-canopy dry forest is physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, with tall broadleaved completely deciduous (caducifolious) trees. Although it has been locally regarded as merely representing the transition between the chaco and Amazonia, it is a floristically and physiognomically distinctive unit that should be accorded equivalent conservation importance to the other major dry-forest vegetation types (Gentry 1994).The chaco is adjoined to the north by two large and phytogeographically distinctive areas of dry forest, the cerrado and caatinga, which cover a small portion of easternmost Bolivia and most of the Brazilian Shield area of central and north-eastern Brazil. The typical vegetation of the â€Å"cerrado† region consists of wooded savanna with characteristically gnarled sclerophyllous-leaved trees with thick twisted branches and thick bark, widely enough separated to allow a ground cover of grass intermixed with a rich assortment of woody-rooted (xylopodial) subshrubs.The cerrado also includes areas where the trees form a nearly closed canopy (â€Å"cerradao†), and large open areas of grasses and subshrubs with no trees at all (â€Å"campo limpio† and â€Å"campo rupestre†). Although the cerrado is appropriately considered a kind of dry forest, some cerrado regions actually receive more rainfall than do adjacent fores t regions; excess aluminium in the soil may be as important as the climate in determining its distribution. The even drier forest of the caatinga of north-eastern Brazil extends from an appropriately subtropical 17 °S latitude farther north to a surprisingly equatorial 3 °S.Why this region should have such low rainfall remains poorly understood. Another climatic peculiarity is the irregularity of its rainfall, not only with low annual precipitation, but also with frequent years when the rains fail almost completely. The typical vegetation of the â€Å"caatinga† – relatively low, dense, small-leaved and completely deciduous in the dry season – is physiognomically similar to that of the chaco. The final major South American dry-forest area is the coastal forest of north-western Peru and south-western Ecuador.Even more anomalous in its geographical setting than the caatinga, this dry-forest region is positioned almost on the Equator. The occurrence of dry fores t so near the Equator is due to the offshore Humboldt Current. While similar cold-water currents occur along mid-latitude western coasts of other continents, the Humboldt Current is perhaps the strongest of these and is the only cold current reaching so near the Equator. The dry forest of coastal Peru and adjacent Ecuador is (or at least was, see below) physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, tall with a closed canopy of broadleaved completely deciduous trees.There also are a number of scattered smaller patches of tropical dry forest and/or savanna in various interAndean valleys, around Tarapoto, Peru, the Trinidad region of Bolivia, Brazil's Roraima area, the Surinam/Brazil border region, on Marajo Island, and in the pantanal region of the upper Paraguay River. Grasslands and deserts Grasslands and deserts occupy smaller areas of the neotropics than they do in Africa or most higher latitude continents. The main grassland region of the neotropics is the pampas r egion between about 39 °S and 28 °S and encompassing most of Uruguay as well as adjacent eastern Argentina and southernmost Brazil.The other major grassland area is the llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela. Smaller predominantly grassland regions occur in north-eastern Bolivia (Llanos de Mojos) and the south-eastern Guayana region (Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna). There are also areas with few or no trees and dominated by grasses in the cerrado and pantanal regions of Brazil, and scattered outliers associated with local edaphic peculiarities elsewhere. None of the major grassland regions has many endemic species, in contrast to the campos rupestres of the Brazilian Shield and the Guayana area whitesand savannas, which have many endemics.This contrast is especially marked in southern Venezuela where some savanna patches have clay soils and a llanos-type flora of widespread species, whereas others have sandy soils and a flora of Amazonian affinities with many endemic specie s (Huber 1982). The desert regions of Latin America are confined to northern Mexico, the monte (Morello 1958; Orians and Solbrig 1977) and Patagonian steppes of Argentina, and the narrow Pacific coastal strip of northern Chile and Peru. The 3500-km long South American coastal desert is one of the most arid in the world – most of it is largely devoid of vegetation.This region is saved from conservational obscurity, however, by the occurrence of islandlike patches of mostly herbaceous vegetation in places where steep coastal slopes are regularly bathed in winter fog. Although these â€Å"lomas† formations are individually not very rich in species (mostly fewer than 100 spp. ), they have a very high degree of endemism due to their insular nature. The overall lomas flora includes nearly 1000 species, mostly annuals or geophytes. Diversity and endemism in the lomas formations generally increase southward, where cacti and other succulents are also increasingly represented (M uller 1985; Rundel  et al. 991). Montane vegetation The main montane-forest area of the neotropics is associated with the Andes. A major but more interrupted montane-forest strip is associated with the mountainous backbone of Central America. Venezuela's Cordillera de la Costa phytogeographically is essentially an Andean extension, although geologically distinct from the Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. The tepui summits of the Guayana Highlands, though small in area, constitute a highly distinctive and phytogeographically fascinating montane environment.The Serra do Mar along Brazil's south-eastern coast is mostly low elevation but has a few peaks reaching above treeline with a depauperate paramo-like vegetation. The Andes may be conveniently recognized in three segments: northern – Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador; central-Peru and Bolivia; and southern-Chile and Argentina. In general the northern Andes are wetter, the central and southern regions drier. The main biogeographic discontinuity in the Andean forests is associated with the HuancabambaDepression in northern Peru, where the extensive system of dry interAndean valleys of the Maranon River and its tributaries entirely bisects the Eastern Cordillera and is associated with a topographically complex region having unusually high local endemism. Treeline in the tropical Andes occurs around 3500 m, depending on latitude and local factors. Above treeline, the wet grass-dominated vegetation of the Venezuelan, Colombian and northern Ecuadorian Andes is termed â€Å"paramo†; this drier vegetation, occurring from Peru to Argentina and Chile, is the â€Å"puna†.Colombian and Venezuelan paramos are characterized by  Espeletia  (Compositae) with its typical pachycaul-rosette growth form. The vegetation above treeline of most of Ecuador and northernmost Peru, locally called â€Å"jalca† in Peru, is ecologically as well as geographically intermediate; although generally cal led paramo in Ecuador, this region lacks the definitive  Espeletia  aspect of the typical northern paramos. While individual high-Andean plant communities are not very rich in species, many different communities can occur in close proximity in broken montane terrain.Thus the several high-Andean sites for which Florulas are available (Cleef 1981; Smith 1988; Galeano 1990; Ruthsatz 1977) have between 500-800 species, approaching the size of some lowland tropical Florulas. The moist Andean slopes generally show a distinctive floristic zonation, with woody plant diversity decreasing linearly with altitude from c. 1500 m to treeline. Below 1500 m Andean forests are generally similar both in floristic composition and diversity to equivalent samples of lowland forest. There are also structural changes at different elevations.For example hemi-epiphytic climbers show a strong peak in abundance between 1500-2400 m, epiphytes are usually more numerous in middleelevation cloud forests, and the stem density of woody plants is usually greater at higher elevations (Gentry 1992a). While the northern Andes have cloud forest on both western and eastern slopes, increasing aridity south from the Equator limits cloud forest to an ever narrower band on the Pacific slope. South of 7 °S latitude, forest on the western slopes of the Andes is restricted to isolated protected pockets, and the predominant slope vegetation becomes chaparral, thorn scrub and desert.One of the most striking features of the Andes phytogeographically is the high level of floristic endemism. In part this is associated with the discontinuity of high-altitude vegetation types, which are strongly fragmented into habitat islands. In addition to microgeographic allopatric speciation related to habitat fragmentation, it seems likely that unusually dynamic speciation, perhaps associated with genetic drift in small founder populations, may be a prevalent evolutionary theme in Andean cloud forests (Gentry and Dod son 1987; Gentry 1989).The combination of high local endemism (Gentry 1986a, 1993a; Luteyn 1989; Henderson, Churchill and Luteyn 1991) with major deforestation makes the Andes one of South America's conservationally most critical regions. As with the dry forests, the Andean forests have recently begun to receive greater conservation attention (Henderson, Churchill and Luteyn 1991; Young and Valencia 1992). Estimates of deforestation for the northern Andes as a whole are generally over 90%.Some areas are even more critical – perhaps less than 5% of Colombia's high-altitude montane forests remain (Hernandez-C. 1990) and only c. 4% of the original forest persists on the western Andean slopes of Ecuador (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Most of the northern Peruvian Andes are similarly deforested (cf. Dillon 1994). Although relatively extensive forests still remain on the Amazonfacing slopes of Peru and Bolivia, much of this area is being actively deforested, in large part to grow  "coca† (Erythroxylum coca) and opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). FloraFrom a conservation perspective, the neotropical region merits very special attention. Just as South America is sometimes called the â€Å"bird continent†, the neotropics might well be termed the â€Å"plant continent† in deference to their uniquely rich botanical diversity (Table 50). If current estimates are accurate, the neotropical region contains 90,000-100,000 plant species, twice to nearly three times as many as in either tropical Africa or tropical Australasia (cf. Prance 1994). The last great places for plant collecting are in the northern half of South America (J.Wurdack 1995, pers. comm. ), which is two to four times less documented by herbarium specimens than elsewhere in the tropics (cf. Campbell 1989). Some of the main relatively unexplored areas (according to Wurdack) are, in Brazil: Serra de Tumucumaque (Tumuc-Humac Mountains), along the border with Surinam and French Guiana; sl opes, especially the eastern slopes, of Pico da Neblina; in north-western Mato Grosso State, along the Linea Telegrafica; in Venezuela: slopes and talus forests of the tepuis; aramos west of Pinango (north of Merida); eastern slopes to Paramo de Tama (State of Merida, near border with Colombia); in Colombia: Paramo de Frontino (west of Medellin); Cuatrecasas' headwater localities of collection in western Colombia, particularly in the Department of Valle del Cauca (cf. Cuatrecasas 1958); upper elevations of the Serrania de La Macarena (Department of Meta); in Ecuador: Cordillera de Los Llanganates (which is east of Ambato) (cf.Kennerley and Bromley 1971); Cordillera de Cutucu (Province of Morona-Santiago); Cordillera del Condor, along the border with Peru; in Peru: elevations above 700 m of the Cerros Campanquiz, which are mostly in the Department of Amazonas; the eastern cordillera in the Department of Amazonas, Province of Chachapoyas (e. g. the Cerro de las Siete Lagunas east of C erro Campanario); portions of the Cordillera de Vilcabamba (which is north-west of Cusco), including the northern Cutivireni region (Villa-Lobos 1995); and in Bolivia: the easternmost Andes and granitic outliers in the Department of Santa Cruz.Floristic diversity is very asymmetrically distributed in South America (cf. Table 51). If the nine phytogeographic regions recognized by Gentry (1982a) for the neotropics are taken as a basis, Central America with Mexico (Mesoamerica) and Amazonia are the richest in species, with each of these two regions having about a quarter of the neotropical total. At the opposite extreme, the Antilles have an estimated 9% of the total neotropical flora and the Caribbean coastal region of Colombia and Venezuela has only 8%.The minuscule area of the Guayana Highlands (above 1500 m) accounts for only c. 2. 5% of the neotropical flora, but has one of the highest rates of endemism (65%) in the region (Berry, Huber and Holst 1995). The three main tropical Sou th American dry areas together include a relatively low 11% of the neotropical species total. Intermediate levels of regional plant species richness are found in the Northern Andean and Southern Andean regions and the Mata Atlantica area of Brazil, which each have between 16-18% of the tropical flora of the neotropical region.Regional endemism is greatest in Amazonia including lowland Guayana (76%), but almost as great in coastal Brazil (73%) and the chacocerradocaatinga dry areas (73%). In contrast, those two Andean subregions, Central America, and the Antilles have endemism levels of 54-60%, and the northern Colombia/Venezuela region only 24%. Farther south in the Southern Cone of South America, the monte of Argentina is estimated to include 700 species with 5% endemism, and Patagonia 1200 species with 30% endemism.Chile as a whole has 5215 species (Marticorena and Quezada 1985; Marticorena 1990), with 1800-2400 in the Mediterranean-climate area of central Chile where endemism is high, perhaps greater than for any of the equivalent tropical regions. The reasons for the unique floristic diversity of the neotropics as compared to Africa or tropical Australasia continue to be hotly debated. A popular theory is allopatric multiplication of species in habitat-island forest refugia during Pleistocene glacial advances (Haffer 1969; Prance 1973, 1982). Africa, which is higher and drier, would have had fewer refugia and more extinction.Tropical Asia was less affected, being buffered by the nearby ocean due to the island status of its components and by its proximity to a rain source from the Pacific (the world's largest ocean). Other theories, not necessarily mutually exclusive (cf. Terborgh and Winter 1982), focus on explosive speciation in the more extensive cloud-forest area of the neotropics (Gentry 1982a, 1989; Gentry and Dodson 1987); â€Å"Endlerian† speciation associated with habitat specialization in the uniquely complicated habitat mosaic of north-wes tern and north-central Amazonia (Gentry 1986a, 1989; Gentry and Ortiz-S. 993); speciation associated with riverine barriers to gene flow in the largest river system of the world (Capparella 1988; Ducke and Black 1953); or biogeographical phenomena associated with the Great American Interchange and stemming from the direct juxtaposition of Laurasian and Gondwanan elements via the Isthmus of Panama (Gentry 1982a; Marshall  et al. 1979). Social and environmental values, and economic importance The indigenous groups (nations) of South America (Gray 1987) are varyingly diverse peoples who often partly depend directly on the natural environment for their biological and cultural well or survival.Their approximate presence is shown inTable 52. As the site of one of the Vavilovian centres of domestication, South America has played an important role in providing plants useful to people. The Andean centre of domestication rivals the Indo-Malayan and Mediterranean areas as the region that has produced the most important crop plants. Tobacco, potatoes, grain amaranths, quinoa, peanuts, lima beans, kidney beans, tomatoes and perhaps sweet potatoes and pineapples all derive from the Peruvian Andes and immediately adjacent egions (Anderson 1952). Based on land-race diversity, western Amazonia was the centre of domestication of a series of less well-known but increasingly important crops, including â€Å"pejibaye† or peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), â€Å"biriba† or â€Å"anona† (Rollinia mucosa), â€Å"abiu† or â€Å"caimito† (Pouteria caimito), â€Å"sapota† (Quararibea cordata), â€Å"araza† (Eugenia stipitata), â€Å"uvilla† (Pourouma cecropiifolia) and â€Å"cubiu† or â€Å"cocona† (Solanum sessiliflorum) (Clement 1989).Of the 86 major crops and their more than 100 species included in a summary of crop plant evolution (Simmonds 1976), 24 crops are neotropical in origin either wholly (19) or partly (5). Also, a host of South American forest plants are used locally but have not reached world commerce. Amazonia is especially rich in wild fruits (e. g. Duke and Vasquez 1994). For example around Iquitos, Peru, 139 species of forest-harvested fruits are regularly consumed, 57 of them important enough to be sold in the local produce market (Vasquez and Gentry 1989).There are a multitude of other uses for neotropical plants. Gentry (1992b) notes that 38% of the Bignoniaceae species of north-western South America have specific ethnobotanical uses and suggests that this could be extrapolated to 10,000 species with uses in this part of the world alone. Many studies have shown that the direct economic value of such products can be very high (e. g. Peters, Gentry and Mendelsohn 1989; Balick and Mendelsohn 1992).In a single hectare of speciesrich tropical forest near Iquitos, 454 of the 858 trees and lianas of dbh 10 cm or more have actual or potential uses (Gentry 1986c), with the hectare of f orest potentially producing US$650 worth of fruit and US$50 worth of rubber per year. If the 93 m? of sellable timber worth US$1000 is included, the net present value of the hectare of forest is US$9000, far more than the net present value of managed plantations or cattle-ranching.Additionally, the major role of forested areas in controlling erosion, recycling rainfall and as a carbon sink are now well known. As the territory with the largest tropical forest remaining in the world, South America plays a major role in providing such regional and planetary environmental services. Return to Top Loss, threats and conservation Although the neotropical region has the most forest, it is also losing more forest each year than any other area of tropical forest (Myers 1982; Reid 1992).In western Ecuador only 4% of the original forest cover remains (Dodson and Gentry 1991). Much attention has focused on Brazil, which includes 48% of the South American area. Perhaps the most definitive satellit e analysis of deforestation in Amazonia to date (Skole and Tucker 1993) indicates that as of 1988 only c. 10% of Brazilian Amazonia had been deforested, but if allowance is made for a 1-km edge effect, fully 20% of Brazilian Amazonia had been impacted. Deforestation in Rondonia alone has been c. 4000 km? per year, reaching almost 40,000 km? r 15% of the state by 1989 (Malingreau and Tucker 1988; Fearnside 1991). In coastal Brazil estimates of surviving forest range from 2% (IUCN and WWF 1982) to 12% (Brown and Brown 1992). Burgeoning populations are the biggest factor in the ongoing losses, although political and economic instability in some areas, and short-sighted â€Å"development† programmes in other areas, also play significant roles. In most of the neotropics, unlike much of the Old World, commercial lumbering operations have played a relatively small role so far.Conservational awareness throughout the region has increased dramatically in the past few years. Not only ar e increasing numbers of National Parks and similar conservation units being set aside, but there is also rapidly growing interest in the possibility of sustainable use of tropical forests as a conservation strategy. Unfortunately many destructive and unsustainable uses of forest can masquerade behind the banner of sustainable use. Making this promising new concept fulfil its potential remains a major challenge.Similarly the growing appreciation of the potential value of biodiversity has been accompanied by too much political preoccupation and posturing about sovereignty over potential genetic resources. Despite such problems, it is clear that the diversity of rain-forest plant life is intrinsically valuable. South America, botanically the richest continent, is also the greatest repository of potentially useful plants. Conservation of South America's plant diversity is clearly a world conservational priority.